Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology
Volume:23 Issue: 4, Jul 2021

Credit is a major tool and an important factor for tea production and farm outcome. Its demand from different lending sources has been increasing to meet capital investment in the tea sector. Accessed credit is to meet costs of tea production, mainly fertilizers, seedlings, and labor as well. Factors affecting access to credit have been a subject of vast debate in recent studies that credit seekers obtain credits only when they are eligible by complying with the requirements set by lending institutions. However, literature has limited findings on the behavior of small-scale borrowers in selecting a credit source and inducing factors. In particular, borrowing arrangements necessitate the analysis to inform policy makers on needed adjustment in the lending system to improve tea production and sector development. The study aims at disclosing responsible factors to choose a particular credit source by smallholder tea farmers. A survey was conducted with 358 tea growers selected randomly in two cooperatives that operated in Nyaruguru District. A multivariate probit model was used for analytical analysis. Borrowing from formal source (commercial banks) increased if borrower possessed collateral asset (85.5%), interest rate (85.0%) size of tea plantation (24.8%) and household composition (10.5%). Using informal sources increased if a farmer desired a small credit (83.2%), participated in technical training (76.9%), and received joint credit (46.9%), while a farmer was likely to use less informal sources if his/her farm size (39.9%) and household income (29.2%) were small. However, combining sources of credit was used by farmers as a safeguard strategy to acquire the desired loan. A government policy, which aims to increase productive investment, should emphasize integrating agricultural loans in financial system targeting smallholder farmers through their organizations where they can relax credit constraints.

Planning for the agricultural sector requires identifying the limitations and capacities of field crops and horticultural production. Many studies in Iran have considered one or more dimensions of the agricultural sector; however, few studies have simultaneously examined the factors affecting the production of crops and horticultural products. For this study, data was gathered from 30 provinces in Iran during the period 2008-2016. First, PESTEL analysis variables were identified, and the I-Distance method was used to define the weight of each variable. Secondly, the PESTEL analysis dimensions were calculated by combining the variables of each index. Finally, the PESTEL analysis was combined with the econometric model of the spatial 3D panel. The resulting pattern was estimated by taking into account three dimensions, namely, time, province, and type of production (field and horticulture crops). The results showed that the indicator of environment is the most significant factor in the production of agricultural and horticultural products. Also, the investment factor and the supportive policies indicator are the most limiting factors in the production of field crops and horticultural products.

The sugar industry has many backward and forward linkages in the supply chain. In this industry, a chain of agricultural, industrial, oil, transportation, and commerce sectors is engaged to transform raw materials into product and shipping it to consumers. In this research, the efficiency of decision-making units in Iranchr('39')s sugar supply chain is evaluated using network and simple Data Envelopment Analysis methods. Results of the first level of decentralized sugar supply chain in Iran (extraction of sugar from sugar beets) indicate that the average technical efficiency in terms of a constant return to scale and the allocation, economic, and scale efficiency are not at appropriate levels. In the second level of supply chain, weakness was observed in allocative and economic efficiency. The results showed that the Provinces of West Azerbaijan and Khorasan-e Razavi offer desirable conditions for sugar beet production in terms of efficiency. Supply chain management has been used as a tool for timely delivery of the product to market at a lower cost to increase the efficiency of the entire sugar supply chain. A move toward vertical integration in sugar production is also proposed to benefit integration.

Awareness of watershed problems and their consequences based on causal models is a fundamental step in the implementation of integrated watershed management plans and achieving watershed health. In this study, the DPSIR framework was used to analyze watershed health and cause-effect relations among its components, as well as structuring information in the Chehel-Chay Watershed, Golestan Province, Iran. For this purpose, first, items of each component were identified by library studies and literature reviews, and also discussion with NGOs and members of the village council. The validity and reliability of the questionnaire were confirmed by, respectively, a group of experts and Cronbachchr('39')s alpha method. The sample size of the watershed residents was calculated by Cochranchr('39')s formula. Then, the items were prioritized using the Friedman test based on the Likert scale, from the viewpoints of 28 experts and 94 residents. The matrix of relations between the items of the main components and their prioritization was determined according to the perspective of both groups. The results showed that the compliance rate of common priorities among 40% of the top priorities was 73% for the component of Pressure, 60% for the components of State and Impact, and 58% for the component of Response. Also, the most important managerial responses were identified and prioritized. Due to the presence of various stakeholders, applying these responses in the framework of integrated watershed management is crucial to improve watershed health.

In this research, production of a probiotic drink based on jujube extract by means of fermentation with Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus delbrueckii as probiotic lactic acid bacteria was studied. The fermentation was performed for 72 hours at 37°C. The changes in microbial population, pH and titratable acidity as well as sugar and organic acid metabolism during the fermentation period were evaluated. In addition, before and after fermentation, the changes in total phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity in the extract were also investigated. Eventually, different drink formulations were developed employing fermented and non-fermented jujube extract, carbonatation, and sour cherry concentrate. Then, sensory properties of the formulated drinks were evaluated. Appropriate growth of L. plantarum and L.delbruckii resulted in an increase in acidity to 1.86 and 1.75, and a decline in pH to 3.4 and 3.56, respectively, after 72 hours. Glucose and fructose were significantly consumed by the strains. Citric acid concentration dropped to 1.12 and 5.8 g L-1 in the extract fermented by L. plantarum and L. delbrueckii, respectively, after 72 hours. At the end of fermentation, 23.8 and 11.4 g L-1 lactic acid was produced by L. plantarum and L. Delbrueckii, respectively. The contents of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity in jujube extract after fermentation were significantly increased.The results of sensory evaluation of different drink formulations showed that the carbonated drink containing jujube extract fermented by L.plantarum mixed with sour cherry concentrate obtained the highest score among different drink formulations.

This study aimed to convert sweet and bitter lupine protein isolates to nano-emulsions and to develop products with the nano-emulsion and examine the stability; develop emulsification with ultrasonication; develop and characterize food protein-stabilized nanoemulsions; and to modify lupine protein properties with pH shifting and ultrasonication. The antioxidant activity of sweet and bitter isolates was decreased in the nano-particle sized samples when compared to non-nano particle-sized samples, as well as the inhibitory activity of both angiotensin-converting enzyme and alpha-amylase, while it increased in sweet and bitter lupine isolates. For both types of lupine, water holding capacity was increased, and foaming stability of nano treatment was increased in protein isolate samples. In lupine, albumins and three globulins fractions, namely, β-conglutin, α-conglutin, and γ-conglutin, were characterized as the main storage proteins. No clear differences were observed between nano and non-nano samples regarding albumins and three globulins fractions. The results of microstructure characterization showed that sonication leads to distortion/breakage of protein particles shape, which results in smaller proteins that can be used as a top-down approach for the formation of nano-sized protein particles. In this regard, sonication can be considered as a heterogeneous approach that may lead to de-aggregation, breaking of protein particles, and distortion of their shape.

Bread enrichment with fiber-rich leafy vegetables and fermented by-products of milling has gained more attention in recent years. In the present study, the antifungal lactic acid bacterium isolated from Tarkhineh was used as starter culture in controlled wheat germ sourdough in order to improve quality and safety of the white wheat bread containing wheat germ sourdough along with dehydrated spinach puree. The optimized formulation (10% wheat germ sourdough and 20% dehydrated spinach puree, which were replaced by wheat flour) was determined based on the crumb softness of the enriched breads. Then, the quality characteristics of the supplemented breads were studied in terms of textural properties, antioxidant activity, surface moldiness, phytic acid content and organoleptic acceptability. The sequencing of polymerase chain reaction products led to the identification of Lactococcus lactis as the selected antifungal lactic acid bacterium isolate. Texture profile analysis revealed the significant effect (P< 0.05) of wheat germ sourdough and dehydrated spinach puree on crumb hardness and loaf specific volume of the produced breads. Bread containing wheat germ sourdough along with dehydrated spinach puree had the highest radical scavenging activity. Green zone of Asprgillus flavus growth on wheat germ sourdough supplemented bread and phytic acid content of the aforementioned sample were also remarkably lower than the others. Furthermore, there was no significant difference between bread enriched with wheat germ sourdough and wheat germ sourdough along with dehydrated spinach puree in terms of sensory acceptability compared to the control sample.

Cultural methods such as crop fertilization can affect susceptibility of plants to herbivores by altering plant tissue nutrient. In this study, the life table parameters of the two-spotted spider mite (TSSM), Tetranychus urticae Koch were determined under different chemical fertilizer regimes on resistant bean cultivar (var. Parastoo) under laboratory conditions at 25±1°C, 60±5% RH and a photoperiod of 16:8 (L:D) hour. Treatments included 30, 60, and 100% of the recommended level of urea, ammonium nitrate, and potassium sulfate fertilizers. According to the obtained results, the longest preadult development time was related to individuals reared on the fertilized bean with potassium sulfate 60%, while the shortest period was related to those on 30% ammonium nitrate and 60%urea. The mean fecundity of the individuals reared on fertilized beans with different concentrations of ammonium nitrate (especially 60% ammonium nitrate) were significantly higher than the other fertilizers. The highest and lowest values of intrinsic rate of increase (r) were obtained on beans fertilized with 60% ammonium nitrate and 100%potassium sulfate, respectively. In addition, the values of net Reproductive rate (R0) and the Gross Reproductive Rate (GRR) of TSSM reared on bean fertilized with 60% ammonium nitrate were significantly higher than the other fertilizer treatments. Our findings may provide important information in the design of a comprehensive program for integrated soil fertility management and subsequently integrated management of TSSM in bean fields.

The European corn borer Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner), as a worldwide corn pest, causes serious damages. In the present study, some biological aspects of O. nubilalis were investigated on three different host plants including corn stalks, potato, and soybean stems, and a specific semi-artificial diet. Once appropriate host was selected, developmental rates of eggs, larval and pupal stages as well as moth emergence, longevity, and female fecundity were determined at four constant temperatures (20, 24, 28, and 32±1°C). The relationship between temperature and developmental rate was estimated with two linear models under laboratory condition (70-80% RH and a photoperiod of 16L:8D hour). Results showed significant differences between studied foods, such that corn stalk sections and semi-artificial diet were appropriate host for O. nubilalis compared to the other two hosts. It was also revealed that optimum temperature for growth of this pest was 28°C. Lower developmental threshold estimated by traditional and Ikemoto-Takai linear models for whole immature stages were about 9 and 10°C, and thermal constants were 473 and 431 degree day (DD), respectively. Compared to previous studies, these values were similar in the immature stages, except for the larval stage, which could indicate the importance of nutrition and role of the plant host in temperature requirements.

Diatomaceous Earths (DEs) have a long history for on-farm and commercial grain storage, hygiene, and structural treatment. Structural treatments by DEs have shown to be useful for eradication of residual insect infestations in storage facilities. In this study, the residual toxicity of different DE formulations was examined against adults of Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Coleoptera: Bostrychidae) and Tribolium confusum Jacquelin du Val (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) on different surfaces including concrete, galvanized steel, and mosaic. The surfaces were treated with 0.2 mg cm-2 concentration of DE formulations that included SilicoSec®, Protect-It, and an Iranian DE formulated from a Mamaghan Mine, Iran, supplemented with an amorphous silica gel product to enhance efficacy. The residual toxicity of DEs was assessed at 7, 15, 30, 45, and 60 days post-treatment. The mortality was determined after 1, 3, 5, and 7 days of insects’ exposure to each surface. According to the results, the most effective product proved to be SilicoSec® when compared to Protect-It and the Iranian Mamaghan DE. The toxicity and persistence of DE formulations were higher on the galvanized steel compared to that achieved on the concrete and mosaic surfaces. Nevertheless, the results demonstrated that an Iranian DE containing 10% locally available amorphous silica is capable of controlling R. dominica and T. confusum in warehouses and other storage facilities. However, additional studies are needed to confirm these findings.

The effect of nutrient solutions with varying nitrogen forms was evaluated on yield and quality of coriander (cv. Punjab Sugandh) grown in soilless medium under polyhouse conditions. Crop was sown on three dates viz., October (main season), February, and July (off-season), respectively. In polyhouse, N (Nitrogen) was supplied in variable ratios of NO3- to NH4+ viz; 100:0 (T1), 75:25 (T2), 50:50 (T3), 25:75 (T4), 0:100 (T5), respectively, keeping total N content constant. Fresh foliage was harvested 3 times in each season at 30 days interval starting from date of sowing. At each harvest, plant growth quality parameters including activity of antioxidants enzymes were determined. Irrespective of the seasons, the yield was significantly higher in polyhouse than soil-grown crop, and among the nutrient solutions, the solution of T2 recorded significantly higher yield as well as growth and quality parameters during all the season. It could be concluded that NO3- to NH4+ ratio of 75:25 in the nutrient solution improved both yield and quality and is thus most suitable for coriander crop.

To investigate the effect of inoculation with Rhizobium legominosarum and Pseudomonas fluorescens on grain yield, leaf area index, and dry matter accumulation and allocation of Vicia faba L., an experiment was conducted as a split-plot in a randomized complete block design with four replications at Agricultural Research Station of Golestan Province, during the cropping seasons of 2015-2017. As the main-factor, Rhizobium was considered at two levels of with and without inoculation, while the sub-factor included Pseudomonas in density levels of 0, 9×103, 9×105, 9×107, and 9×109 cells or CFU mL-1 of inoculants. A logistic model by SAS, was used in order to estimate the changes in the leaf area index and the dry matter accumulation. Combined analysis of variance for the two years of study indicated that the climatic conditions influenced the bacteria effects. In the second year (less temperature and rainfall), the traits (maximum leaf area index, maximum dry weight and grain yield) indicated a significant reduction in comparison with the first year. P. fluorescens had a significant positive effect on grain yield in the two years. None of the bacteria had significant effect on maximum leaf area index. Results of the first year showed a positive effect of the inoculation of Rhizobium on maximum dry weight (8%) in comparison with the control. Co-inoculation of Rhizobium with Peseudomonas (9×105 CFU mL-1) led to the greatest dry matter distribution coefficient for stems in podding stage. In the second year, Peseudomonas (9×109 CFU mL-1) increased maximum dry weight (23%) in comparison with the control. Also, the density increase of Peseudomonas under co-inoculation with Rhizobium led to a significant reduction of the day to maximum LAI. In conclusion, co-inoculation Rhizobium with Pseudomonas can have a positive effect on the growth indices of faba bean.

History and background of blackberry cultivars and wild species is unclear in the south coast of the Caspian Sea as an origin of diversity center in Iran. In the present study, genetic diversity of 45 genotypes of blackberries (thorny and thornless) from the collection of Sari Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources University (SANRU) located in south of the Caspian Sea were studied by using Inter Simple Sequence Repeats (ISSR) markers. Jaccardchr('39')s similarity coefficient was used to plot the cluster diagram according to the Unweighted Pair-Group Method with Arithmetic averages (UPGMA) algorithm. Results showed that 10 ISSR primers amplified 345 fragments, of which 344 were polymorphic. The average numbers of bands were 34.5 per primers. Based on the Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCA) results, blackberry genotypes were classified in three groups. Some wild genotypes were located closed to commercial thorny cultivars. Cluster analysis divided the genotypes to six groups. Introduced genotypes that were in the same group were separated in sub-groups according to maturity time (early, mid, and late ripening cultivars). These genetic traits separated them and confirmed the morphological results, identifying them as thorny cultivars Silvan, Marion, and Tupi. The results indicated that gene pool of thornless blackberry is not limited to chimera type (as first generation of thornlessness) and it probably includes the two further steps in evolution, and even include some new and evolved types of native thornlessness.

Enzymes play a crucial role in plant-pathogen interactions and are very important to manage plant diseases. Take-all is a disease (Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici) affecting the crowns and roots in wheat. So far, the resistance mechanism of this disease has not been identified; therefore, this research was performed to identify the components of resistance to this disease in a number of wheat genotypes. In this study, 8 bread wheat genotypes were cultured, and the changes in “peroxidase, Polyphenol Oxidase (PPO), Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyase (PAL), and total protein” was assessed in 0, 4, 7, 9, and 12 days after inoculation. The results showed that different genotypes of wheat had different pathogenicity reactions to the take-all disease. Based on the average disease intensity, the genotypes were divided into three groups: resistant, moderately resistant, and susceptible. The results indicated that the level of polyphenol oxidase and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, and the total protein increased in the resistant and moderately resistant groups. Cluster analysis by K-means was performed to produce three clusters. Polyphenol oxidase activity, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase activity, and total protein content in the second (resistant) and third (moderately resistant) clusters were higher than the first cluster (susceptible). Multivariate analysis indicated that peroxidase enzyme might indirectly influence the resistance. The results have clarified the role of polyphenol oxidase enzymes and total protein in enhancing resistance to take-all disease.

Misuse or excessive use of chemical fertilizers cause non-point source pollution in the vegetable production system. Fertilizer is a key factor affecting nutrient absorption and biomass production of vegetables. However, there is little information on the role of Compound Effective Microorganisms (CEM) in vegetable production. In field trials, three fertilizer treatments were used to study their effects on the growth characteristics and quality of lettuce, spinach, and pakchoi. There were five treatments in the experiment including Control Treatment (CK), 0.3% (Mass volume ratio: w/v) of urea: Water (T1), 0.3% (w/v) of compound fertilizer: Water (T2), CEM fertilizer was diluted to 1: 1,000 (CEM fertilizer: Water, Volume ratio: v/v) before application (T3), 1: 500 (CEM fertilizer: Water, v/v) (T4), 1: 100 (CEM fertilizer: Water, v/v) (T5). Ten representative plants were selected for each treatment to measure plant growth performance. Compared with the control, the plant height gradually increased after applying fertilizer during the entire growth period of the plant. Total leaf chlorophyll concentration of the CEM treatment was also significantly higher than the control treatments. CEM led to an increase in leaf area and leaf number. The effect of EM fertilizer on vegetable growth and yield was studied. In T4 treatment, spinach had the highest plant fresh yield, which was 15.60 g plant-1. Under different fertilizer treatments, the yield of pakchoi varied greatly, while under T5 treatment, the yield of pakchoi increased significantly. The maximum yield of pakchoi in T5 treatment was 30.66 g plant-1. The yield of lettuce in T3 treatment was the highest, 12.32 g plant-1. CEM could maintain productivity of green vegetable and contained a variety of beneficial bacteria. The cultivation of EM increased the yield of plants and increased the growth of vegetables. In conclusion, these results showed that vegetables could produce high yield and high quality through CEM management.